b'MUDD 24 URBAN NETWORKS|URBAN GATEWAYSValue Creation withSpatial NetworksMessage from Academics and Scholars:John ZerbyInformation and communication networks beganplanning and design since accessibility and with the early hunter-gathers who developedresilience are important characteristics of urban symbolling systems using speech, gestures,growth and development.This should not smoke signals and mimetic materials (Mithenbe surprising, since a city can be depicted as 1990, p.70).The social hierarchy withinset of overlapping and interconnecting social these settlements formed the basis for inter- and economic networks. This notion has been personal networks to ensure that the informationfurther extended to include the concept of exchange was reliable and contributed to thesocial capital, which is defined by the OECD as survival of the settlement (Apicella 2012). networks together with shared norms, values Although the original objectives and functionsand understandings that facilitate co-operation continue to apply, the characteristics of thesewithin or among groups (Keeley 2007, p.102).networks changed considerably during theThe main objective of the following paragraphs second half of the 20th century when repairsis to show that that social capital is a principal by humans could no longer subdue the newenabler of value creation in spatial networks.forms of network failure.More specifically, replacement was superior to repair and this, inThe first electrical power network, using 13 turn, allowed networks to be larger in size, withalternating current, was built in Barrington, increased complexity. Massachusetts in 1886 and demonstrated the importance of accessibility to the network. This John Zerby The organisation of human intervention changednetwork was configured with transformers to further with cyberspace networks and controlchange the voltage from low to high so that systems designed to be self-correcting.Butelectricity could be transmitted over longer the spectre of a crash in the increasingly largerdistances with minimal loss of power.Step-systems became much greater, and accessibilitydown transformers were then needed to lower and resilience were needed to minimise thethe voltage to safer levels for households and potential losses arising from system failures. businesses (Whelan 2014).A larger scale for This provides a direct connection to urbanthe electric power network was required to offset MUDD 24 - Urban Gateways | Urban NetworksINTRO 8pt.indd 14 26/11/2019 4:11:25 PM'